Tag: Gender Equality

What is Empowerment?

Empowerment is a difficult concept to define. It encompasses an individual’s capability set and depends on the context where it is applied e.g. empowerment of an individual at household or community level. Empowerment is the process of enhancing/expanding the assets/capabilities of people/groups/communities to participate, influence, negotiate and hold accountable institutions that affect their lives, in an equitable manner, (Bennet, 2002), (Narayan,2002). Empowerment involves the questioning of agency and power relations within household/society.

For Kishor (2008), empowerment is defined as the process of increasing women’s control over their own lives, bodies and environment. Women must be active agents in the pursuit of empowerment rather than passive receipts of change. Consequently, a bottom up process as advised by Jo Rowlands, i.e. CSA, is essential to allow Female engagement from the start of empowerment enabling process as it allows women participate fully and to take ownership of it, (Villavicencio et al., 2018). In accordance with the SDG’s, Empowerment must have equal effects on all groups/community members, leaving no one behind, allowing for integration of Myanmar’s diverse range of 135 ethnic groups. Empowerment is for all levels of society but must endeavour to start empowerment enabling process with the group who is deemed furthest behind.

As women are the most vulnerable farmers in rural areas this report looks at the existing empowerment abilities and barriers of all women in each household from each agro-ecological zone. Barriers that women farmers face in Myanmar, which prevent gender empowerment include:

  • Lack of gender equal constitutional legislation, e.g. land right and tenure(GEN, 2016), (WOMEN, 2016), (Network, 2015).
  • Lack of support from Institutions, (Murray, 2015),(GEN, 2016),(WOMEN, 2016),(Network, 2015).
  • Traditional stereotypies and social norms preventing realization of women rights and preventing participation in political and public life, (Colverson et al., 2020), (Murray, 2015), (GEN, 2016), (Network, 2015).
  • Violence against women,(Paris, 2019),(GEN, 2016),(WOMEN, 2016),(Network, 2015).
  • Access to Justice – fair pathways to get access to entitled  inheritance, (Paris, 2019).
  • Individual livelihoods and aspirations – that recourses available to them which could allow women to increase households’ income, bargaining power and decision making power in the household, were not relevant to their own ambitions they wishes to pursue, (Colgan et al., 2019).
  • Lack of agency due to household dynamics, (Colgan et al., 2019),(Paris, 2019),(Network, 2015).
  • Lack of access to resources, e.g. land rights, agricultural training, equipment and seeds, loans /credit, (Colgan et al., 2019), (Paris, 2019),(FAO, 2016),(Network, 2015).

While this study of gender dimensions in Myanmar’s CSVs focuses on the complex interaction between social norms, decision making power and existing perception of women’s role  and the influence these factors have on gender empowerment of residents of each CSV, the research will contribute to an understanding of women’s empowerment, resource they can or cannot access and considerations for future CSA empowerment initiatives.

With the use of Community Based Approach (CBA) helps to ensure the inclusion of women in the design stage of CSA to the end results stage of CSA. Which is key to building gender empowerment, as seen in previous studies i.e. IIRR’s study of Guinayangan CSV in the Philippines, WorldFish study in rural Bangladesh, (Colgan et al., 2019).  Through the increased engagement of women in such projects, potentially help to dissolve the traditional gender roles that reinforce the notion that female are not suited to particular livelihood activities, (Colverson et al., 2020), as is the case in Myanmar were women do not fit into the stereotype of farmers. Therefore, the implementation of CSA could help break barriers female farmers face in Myanmar. As found by TMG research 2020, ‘’supporting farmers by fostering women’s economic autonomy is critical to reduce poverty level of rural communities’’. Reducing the  gender gaps in an agriculture dependent country such as Myanmar could provide example worldwide or at least in other global south countries, as women are central to agriculture in developing countries, (Huyer, Campbell, Hill, & Vermeulen, 2016).

Through improved nutrient security via CSA (as well as increased income and bargaining position of women can benefit family health and nutritional outcomes,(Duflo, 2003) (Colverson et al., 2020)). Research showed that women empowerment through livestock production (just one agriculture practice) – creates Links between women’s empowerment and food security, and a stronger link between women’s empowerment and nutrition security (Colverson et al., 2020), (Galiè et al., 2019). Same study also found distinct gender roles in nutrition and food security: the latter associated to men and the former associated to women (Galiè et al., 2019). This further implies the potential to increased food security by increased female engagement in CBA and CSA.

With the facilitation and support of empowerment/CSA both women and men must be able to take control of their own unique farming situation and act to fulfil their livelihood potential. Due to socialization ‘women may feel less empowered to act, so men must also be allies in supporting women’s empowerment, (Murray, 2015). There the use of CBA is very good way of engaging men and women in empowerment enabling activities (while the focus is on climate change and food security). This mixed gender engagement could also prevent potential backlash female farmers may face when challenging some traditional barriers and social norms i.e. working outside the home.

Gender empowerment, identified as one of the key Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations, is given major emphasis globally. In recent years the United Nations has promoted the links between the gender equality, empowerment and climate change. For example, the Lima Work Programme on Gender adopted at COP20 in 2014, promoted gender balance and achieving gender-responsive climate policy. While at COP21 in Paris set the standard of adding gender component in policies. However due to challenges female farmers face the underutilisation of female potential and innovation is still widespread in agriculture. As climate change impacts extend from HH to ecosystems affecting individuals/communities in different ways – much the same as empowerment. Building a climate change resilience ultimately depends on creating localized gender empowerment- enabling environment that supports all participants.

Due to women’s proactive approach to climate change and the high female employment rate in the agri sector, compared to other sectors, building empowerment through agriculture it is a very logical way of targeting gender equality while building food security. But a lot of work still required to create equal space and resources for women and men to participate in climate change decision making and action at all levels. Particular in Myanmar which ranked 148 of out 188 countries in human development largely due to its failure to meet gender equalities standards, (UNDP, 2018).

References:

www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/gender-and-climate-change.

www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/gender_and_climate_change_issues_brief_cop21__04122015.pdf

Gender and international climate policy: An analysis of progress in gender equality at COP21, (Huyer, S., 2016) https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/71106

Colgan, J., McDougall, C., Murray, U., Spillane, C., McKeown, P., & Hossain, M. (2019). Can climate-smart aquaculture enable women’s empowerment in rural Bangladesh?

FAO. (2016). MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA).

GEN. (2016). Report on Obstacles to Gender Equality in Myanmar. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/sally/Dropbox/McCarrick,%20Sally%20IIRR/PDFs%20to%20read/Obstacles%20to%20gender%20equality%20in%20Myanmar%20FullReport.pdf

Murray, U. (2015). TOPIC GUIDE: Women’s Empowerment in a changing Agricultural and Rural Context. . Retrieved from file:///D:/Thesis/Additional%20reading/Una’s%20Recommendations/Final_EoD_Topic_Guide_Women_Empowerment_Changing_Context.pdf

Network, G. E. (2015). Raising the curtain: Cultural norms, social practices and gender equality in Myanmar. Gender Equality Network Yangon.[online] Available from: http://www. genmyanmar. org/publications/GEN% 20Raising% 20the% 20Curtain% 20Full% 20E ng. pdf [Accessed: 18/9-16].

Paris, T. R., and M.F. Rola-Rubzen (Eds.). (2019). Gender Dimension of Climate Change Research in Agriculture

Case Studies in Southeast Asia. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/100189/SEARCA_Gender_Dimension_of_Climate_Change_Research_in_Agriculture_Case_Studies_in_Southeast_Asia.pdf

Thein, P. T. (2015). Gender equality and cultural norms in Myanmar. Paper presented at the INT’L CONFERENCE ON BURMA/MYANMAR STUDIES (Jul. 2015).

Tsiboe, F., Zereyesus, Y. A., Popp, J. S., & Osei, E. (2018). The effect of women’s empowerment in agriculture on household nutrition and food poverty in Northern Ghana. Social Indicators Research, 138(1), 89-108.

WOMEN, U. (2016). Gender Equality and Women’s Rights in Myanmar: A Situation Analysis.

”Why Gender? And Why Myanmar? ”

”Why Gender?  And Why Myanmar?” These are the most frequently asked questions I have encountered when people enquire what I have been up to for the last year. Also followed by ”What have these got to do with Agriculture?’’. Agriculture can be used as the pathway to tackle Myanmar’s problems related to gender inequalities, food insecurities and climate change. In fact, the three are related and better integration of three areas could help provide solutions to their related problems.

As previously mentioned in the introduction 70% of Myanmar’s agriculture workforce are female, (FAO, 2016). It is unclear as what they get paid per agriculture activity as women’s work is not valued by society therefore documentation of women pay is not deemed important. The lack of value for women labor contribution is also highlighted by the 25% gender gap in daily wages, between men and women working the same jobs. This strengthens the traditional belief and social norms expected of women,  – as care givers whose place is in the home –  and further discounts women’s values and potential, making it harder for women to break these restrictive barriers, (Network, 2015), (Thein, 2015), (GEN, 2016),(WOMEN, 2016),(FAO, 2016).

Myanmar, home to almost 54.5million people, is an agricultural country with 69% of the population relying directly or indirectly on agricultural production for their livelihoods, (FAO, 2016). The majority of these are small-hold farmers dependent on rain-fed agriculture and the additional natural resources the country provides. Therefore, Myanmar’s food security, nutrition and livelihoods are predicted to face increased direct and indirect climate change impacts as will be the case for the entire Southeast Asia, (IPCC, 2014). As well as women representing a large part of the agri sector they also play a vital role in food security and nutrition in the agri sector, often carry out most tasks related to crop cultivation from planting and weeding to harvesting and marketing, while also having the main responsibility for domestic and care work.

Female farmers harvesting crops.
Source: The Myanmar Times.

Myanmar is currently ranked 148 of 189 countries, in the human development Index,  due to their low gender inequality standards, (UNDP, 2018). As outlined Gender Equality Network report,  women in Myanmar face many obstacles in pursuit to gender equality, such as different societal roles, unequal access and control of resources, lack of female participation in decision making process and thus have created gender gaps between farmers in rural communities, (GEN, 2016), (Network, 2015), (FAO, 2016), (Paris, 2019). These obstacle to gender empowerment increases women vulnerability to adapt to cc and maintain food and nutrient security at times of crises. i.e. women have limited access to land rights therefore without control or ownership of land are unable to apply for loan to buy new drought resilient seed variety.

Because decisions on climate change adaptation aiming to increase food security, depend on opportunities governed by the varied and complex interplay of social relations, institutions, organizations, and policies, it is critical that we continue to examine our understanding of inequality in agriculture (Deering, 2014; Pérez et al., 2014). Hence the use of gender lens by inclusion of this gender dimension study as part of IIRR food security project in Myanmar. While also keeping the focus of this gender study in line with various intertwined commitments and policies Myanmar has made to reduce the disparity between genders in all sectors and encourage the participation of women within community initiatives, i.e. The National Strategic Plan for the Advancement of Women (2013-2022) (NAPA), Beijing Platform for Action and The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).

Climate change has been recognised as the biggest threat to food security and adequate nutrition in the twenty-first century (Seager et al. 2007). Agriculture has major responsibility for the current GHG emissions emitted during this anthropogenic era. Indeed the use of unsustainable farming practices such as over application of fertilizer, monocropping, deforestation for land use change, all in order to make food production more economically efficient and meet growing global food demands has resulted in environmental damage such as desertification, soil erosion, low soil fertility, water pollution.  Agriculture is the dominant sector of Myanmar’s economy and contribute approx. 37.8% of GDP, (FAO, 2020). This includes agricultural process of wood, wood products; copper, tin, tungsten, iron; cement, construction materials; fertiliser; petroleum and natural gas; garments, jade and gems and well as food production for the global market. All of which involve either the depletion of natural resources or the process itself is damaging to surrounding environment.

Example of enviornmental damaging agriculture practise in Myanmar. Global rice production is responsible for at least 10% of total global agricultural GHG emissions. [The global rice production emits between 500-800 million tons of CO₂ equivalent per year]. Myanmar was the eighth largest exporter of rice in 2019 and the government of Myanmar has set ambitious targets to increase rice exports by 4million tons by 2019/2020. By meeting this target via traditional growing methods, will also potentially increase methane emissions (which is second to importance to CO2 as a greenhouse gas. The traditional flood system used for Rice production is responsible for at least 10% of anthropogenic ghg emissions in the agricultural sector globally at least 1% of global GHG emissions, (Searchinger, et al, 2015), (Yan, et al, 2009).

Global antropogenic greenhouse gas emissions breakdown.
Source: World Resources Institute.
https://web.archive.org/web/20190308094241/https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/Shifting_Diets_for_a_Sustainable_Food_Future_1.pdf

However using sustainable agri methods for rice i.e. drought/salinity tolerant rice varieties, improved irrigation/water storage, altering planting times, alternate wetting and drying, reducing slash-and-burn land preparation method etc. could reduce water consumption, prevent rise of CO2 levels, while increase yield and resilience of crop to climate change, (Wassmann et al., 2009), while continuing to support small farmers and provide a staple food crop to the world population. Myanmar’s drop in rice exports [just one area of agri production]  since 2010 – 2018 [as shown in image:] is largely due to it vulnerability to weather variabilities caused by climate change and Myanmar location which is prone to extreme weather events, droughts, floods, cyclones, (Wassmann et al., 2009). This further illustrates that rice production need to change not only to reduce GHG emissions but to help maintain country’s GDP and continue meeting food demand of globale growing population.

Graph displaying sharp drop in rice production between 2010 -2018. Source: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/visualize.

The overall aim of IIRR’s project is to understand existing gender dimensions which impact on food security in rural agricultural areas of Myanmar. The hope is to gain a greater understanding of all the intricacies involved in current food system with the long-term aim to improve food security by identifying sustainable, inclusive and efficient food systems [CSA options]. The inclusion of csa in a project meets gov framework but the added inclusion of gender supports the project long term success, as it allows adaption and full participation of CSA therefore it enables all farmers to take ownership of the CSA they chose to implement, (Villavicencio, Rosimo, Vidallo, Oro, & Gonsalves, 2018). By using CSA in rural parts of Myanmar enables its benefits reach the most vulnerable to CC without adding further pressure on planetary boundaries.

Planetary Boundaries.

Source: https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/planetary-boundaries.html

The project meet many criteria outlined by UN to meet the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals in Myanmar agriculture seems like the logical pathway to tackle gender inequalities, food insecurity and climate change. By using sustainable agriculture techniques i.e. (Climate Smart Approaches -CSA) in a participatory fashion i.e. (CBA) agri becomes the nexus between these three complex areas.

Rice stalks stacked after threshing, used as animal fodder during the dry period. Climate change is expected to change monsoonal patterns and increase the risk of acute droughts. Source:https://medium.com/@UNDPasiapac/stepping-up-the-story-of-one-myanmar-woman-farmer-leading-the-way-e714dd1eedce#:~:text=In%20Myanmar%20a%20large%20proportion,for%20domestic%20and%20care%20work.

Bibliograpgy:

FAO. (2016). MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA).

FAO. (2020). FAO in the 2020 humanitarian appeals | Myanmar. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/ca7805en/CA7805EN.pdf

Deering, K. (2014). Stepping up to the challenge-Six issues facing global climate change and food security. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/51553/Six%20issues%20facing%20global%20climate%20change%20and%20food%20security.pdf?sequence=15&isAllowed=y

GEN. (2016). Report on Obstacles to Gender Equality in Myanmar. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/sally/Dropbox/McCarrick,%20Sally%20IIRR/PDFs%20to%20read/Obstacles%20to%20gender%20equality%20in%20Myanmar%20FullReport.pdf

 Network, G. E. (2015). Raising the curtain: Cultural norms, social practices and gender equality in Myanmar. Gender Equality Network Yangon.[online] Available from: http://www. genmyanmar. org/publications/GEN% 20Raising% 20the% 20Curtain% 20Full% 20E ng. pdf [Accessed: 18/9-16].

Paris, T. R., and M.F. Rola-Rubzen (Eds.). (2019). Gender Dimension of Climate Change Research in Agriculture

Pérez, C., Jones, E., Kristjanson, P. M., Cramer, L., Thornton, P. K., Förch, W., & Barahona, C. (2014). How resilient are farming households, communities, men and women to a changing climate in Africa?

Searchinger, T., Adhya, T. K., Linquist, B., Wassmann, R., & Yan, X. (2015). Wetting and drying: reducing greenhouse gas emissions and saving water from rice production.

Thein, P. T. (2015). Gender equality and cultural norms in Myanmar. Paper presented at the INT’L CONFERENCE ON BURMA/MYANMAR STUDIES (Jul. 2015).

UNDP. (2018). Human Development Report. Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-5-gender-inequality-index-gii

Villavicencio, F., Rosimo, M., Vidallo, R., Oro, E., & Gonsalves, J. (2018). Equity, empowerment and gender relations: A literature review of special relevance for climate-smart agriculture programming.

Wassmann, R., Jagadish, S., Sumfleth, K., Pathak, H., Howell, G., Ismail, A., . . . Heuer, S. (2009). Regional vulnerability of climate change impacts on Asian rice production and scope for adaptation. Advances in agronomy, 102, 91-133.

WOMEN, U. (2016). Gender Equality and Women’s Rights in Myanmar: A Situation Analysis.

Yan, X., Akiyama, H., Yagi, K., & Akimoto, H. (2009). Global estimations of the inventory and mitigation potential of methane emissions from rice cultivation conducted using the 2006 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines. Global biogeochemical cycles, 23(2).