Phillimon C. Chipanshi

 Chipanshi et al (2021) A Literature Review

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) Dwarfs small ruminant production in sub-Saharan Africa! Article 2

In rural societies of Sub-Saharan Africa, small ruminants provide to smallholder farmers an opportunity of vibrant project options for sustainable livelihoods. Therefore, it is important to use appropriate technology that can protect the sector from collapse. This may include (but not limited to) community disease and parasite management, livestock husbandry skills (e.g., improved feeding), and finance services (Peng et al., 2019; Brandes et al., 2015; Marshall et al., 2019; Haile et al., 2018; Waha et al., 2018). Such initiatives are useful and can empower smallholder farmers and protect them from challenging factors such as diseases, e.g.  Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR).

The importance of proctecting small ruminants from Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR).

Small ruminants - totaling 4.5 billion heads Sub-Saharan Africa according to FAOSTAT - are the primary livestock resource of many poor rural families around the globe, including subsistence farmers and landless villagers as well as pastoralists. For these households, sheep and goats are a source of food and regular income, a means to capitalize savings, and a safety net during times of hardship. Selling animals or their products provides the necessary resources to access food, as well as educational and social services. Food products derived from sheep and goats are an essential part of the diet for many people around Africa and contribute to overcoming malnutrition. Sheep and goat milk and meat are of high nutritional value and provide high-quality protein, vitamins and minerals critical for cognitive development and physical strength, particularly for children. Small ruminants are reared within a variety of production systems, adding value to land, labor and assets: they produce milk, meat, wool, fiber and skins; they support the livelihoods of traders, processor, wholesalers and retailers involved in the value chain. The trade of live animals, sheep and goat meat and goat milk stretches from local to national, regional and international markets.  

Small ruminants are well adapted to arid and semi-arid environments, and are kept in a variety of production systems throughout the world. These include pastoral areas, where goats and sheep make a mixed flock. Households may totally depend on the animals for survival, as crop production is almost absent in such arid or desert areas. In particular, in the dry zone in the Sahel region, it is the only way of life. 

In Sub-Saharan Africa, the number of outbreaks of Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), also known as sheep and goat plague, fell by two-thirds in recent years, showing the commitment of the international community to combatting this highly contagious animal disease in Africa and raising hopes for meeting the goal of global eradication by 2030.

How To Control The Disease?

• Sick animals should be treated separately.  
• Care should be taken to ensure that the fluid discharged from the nose, mouth and eyes of the sick animal does not get into the body of other animals. 
• Goat houses should be cleaned with disinfectant.

Treatment: 

• There is no specific treatment for PPR. However, the death rate can be reduced by preventing stage 2 bacterial and parasitic infections through the application of drugs.
• Oxytetracycline and chlortetracycline are very effective in preventing stage 2 respiratory infections. 
• Studies have shown that food therapy and antibiotics such as enrofloxacin, safety four doses of good results. 
• Washing the face with 5% boro-glycerin makes the mouth ulcer much better. 
• However, around the eyes, nose, mouth should be cleaned with a clean cloth and cotton tube 2-3 times a day. 
• Sick goats should be isolated as soon as possible. 
• You need to contact the nearest livestock department immediately and seek the advice of a doctor. 
• If the sick animal dies, it must be buried or cremated.

Pro Tips: In order to get good results in this treatment, you need to ensure the use of standard compliant serum. Under no circumstances should an opaque or cloudy serum be used. Intravenously apply a very warm (350 – 360 – C) vein with extreme caution, otherwise adverse reactions may occur.

Resistance:

The best way to prevent PPR is to vaccinate goats and sheep regularly. In this case, PPR vaccine is officially provided in every Upazila Livestock Department. Interested farmers can collect PPR vaccines from that department.

Conclusion:

Various studies have shown that this integrated approach is very effective in treating PPR. At different stages of the infection, from the highest 90 percent to the lowest 80 percent of the animals have recovered with this treatment. 

In addition, the body of an animal that recovers from this disease develops immunity against PPR disease. The serum of all these animals can later be used in PPR treatment. Field level veterinarians and goat farmers can use this treatment method very easily.

References

 http://www.fao.org/ppr/background/what-is-ppr/en/

Brandes, R., Saghir, P., Galiè, A. and Barasa, V. (2015) 'ILRI’s experience with the Crop and Goat Project in Tanzania from a gender perspective'.

Haile, A., Gizaw, S., Getachew, T. and Rischkowsky, B. 'Challenges in small ruminant breeding programs and resulting investment priorities in Ethiopia'. Proceedings of the 11th World Congress on Genetics Applied to Livestock Production, Auckland.

Marshall, K., Gibson, J. P., Mwai, O., Mwacharo, J. M., Haile, A., Getachew, T., Mrode, R. and Kemp, S. J. (2019) 'Livestock Genomics for Developing Countries - African Examples in Practice', Frontiers in Genetics, 10.

Peng, S., Fu, E., Lee, S. and Tsai, S. (2019) 'Methods to ameliorate heat stress in non-native alpaca, Vicugna pacos', Small Ruminant Research, 175, pp. 90-95.

Waha, K., Van Wijk, M. T., Fritz, S., See, L., Thornton, P. K., Wichern, J. and Herrero, M. (2018) 'Agricultural diversification as an important strategy for achieving food security in Africa', Global change biology, 24(8), pp. 3390-3400.

A Food and Agriculture Organization report indicates that about 752 million of the world’s poor kept small ruminant livestock to produce food, generate income, manage risks, and build up assets (FAO, 2019). The report added that in Africa, sheep and goats represent around 30 percent of the ruminant livestock and contributed to about 17 percent of the continent’s meat and 12 percent of the continent’s milk. This shows that in Sub-Saharan Africa, rearing small ruminants can be an opportunity of vibrant options for sustainable livelihoods. Unfortunately, many challenging factors especially diseases such as Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) have threated the sector. Like covid19, the outbreak of PPR highlights cracks in the regional livestock sector. The PPR outbreak is sending ripples around the region.

The disease Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR)

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR), also known as sheep and goat plague, is a highly contagious animal disease affecting domestic and wild small ruminants. It is caused by a virus belonging to the genus Morbillivirus, family Paramixoviridae(Bao et al., 2011; Roger et al., 2001). Once newly introduced, the virus can infect up to 90 percent of an animal herd, and the disease kills anywhere up to 70 percent of infected animals. The PPR virus does not infect humans(Munir, 2015).

PPR was first described in 1942 in Côte d'Ivoire, West Africa(Kaukarbayevich, 2009). Since then, the disease has spread to large regions in Africa. Today, more than 70 countries are affected or at high risk and many more are without an official PPR status(Aguilar et al., 2018). The inability of families, communities, and institutions to anticipate, absorb, or recover from PPR can compromise national and regional development efforts, and turn back the clock on decades of progress.  

A PPR outbreak is an emergency due to its rapid spread and high animal mortality rate. Fatal diseases of small ruminants, such as PPR, affect the already vulnerable livelihoods and can decimate the savings of poor populations, in particular in pastoral areas. People become desperate when they lose their assets. PPR outbreaks, and the desperation due to the loss, can therefore trigger turmoil, migration, and volatile security situations. Eradicating PPR will increase sustainability, alleviate poverty, improve the resilience of poor pastoralists and their communities, enable them to better cope with other shocks and threats, prevent forced migration and mitigate extremist trends. 

Key facts

• Sheep and goats are two of the major livestock species kept and cared for by many of the smallholder farmers in Sub- Saharan africa.
• PPR threatens about 80 percent of the regional small ruminant population of nearly 4 billion animals.
• PPR was first described in 1942 in Côte d'Ivoire. 
• PPR has been confirmed in over 70 countries in large areas of Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, and is now spreading to new countries.

How Is the disease spread? (Mitchell et al., 2017; Kaukarbayevich, 2009)

1. The disease can be spread through the eyes, nose, mouth secretions, faces, etc. of sick animals. 
2. Animals that come in contact with sick animals can infect healthy animals through breathing. 
3. The disease can also infect healthy animals through sneezing and coughing of sick animals. 
4. The disease can also be spread through water, food containers and furniture used by sick animals. 
5. Animals that have germs in their body but have not yet shown symptoms of the disease can transmit the disease from one place to another. 
6. However, the hope is that the germs of this disease cannot survive outside the body for long.

What are the symptoms of this disease? (Rezazadeh, Madadgar and Poureini, 2016; Jagtap et al., 2012; Elzein et al., 2004)

1. The symptoms of common PPR disease appear within 3-6 days of entering the body. 
2. Body temperature can suddenly rise a lot. These temperatures can range from 105 degrees to 106 degrees Fahrenheit. 
3. The goat’s nose, mouth, and eyes are the first to produce a thin liquid. Later it becomes thick and yellow. Gradually it can dry out and close the nostrils. This can cause shortness of breath in the animal. 

4. The eyes of the sick animal can also be affected by this disease. In that case, the goat’s eyelids may swell. Many times the eyelids may close due to the secretion of dense granular material. 
5. At one stage of the disease, the face may become swollen. The soft tissues inside the mouth may be affected. The flesh at the base of the teeth can cause muscle sores. In addition, gaps can form in the middle of the teeth, inside the mouth, on the palate, on the lips, on the tongue. 
6. Severe diarrhea can often occur in a sick animal. Diarrhea causes a lot of fluid to leak out of the body. As a result, the animal suffers from dehydration. The animal may also die due to the lack of water. 
7. The sick animal loses weight. The animal is slowly drying up. 
8. In goats infected with PPR, shortness of breath occurs within a few days of becoming ill. 
9. The animal may die within five to ten days of becoming ill. 
10. If the infected goat is pregnant, there is a possibility of miscarriage. 
11. Younger animals are more susceptible to this disease. 
12. The disease is more prevalent in goats than in sheep 

References

http://www.fao.org/ppr/background/what-is-ppr/en/

Aguilar, X. F., Fine, A. E., Pruvot, M., Njeumi, F., Walzer, C., Kock, R. and Shiilegdamba, E. (2018) 'PPR virus threatens wildlife conservation', Science, 362(6411), pp. 165-166.

Bao, J., Wang, Z., Li, L., Wu, X., Sang, P., Wu, G., Ding, G., Suo, L., Liu, C. and Wang, J. (2011) 'Detection and genetic characterization of peste des petits ruminants virus in free-living bharals (Pseudois nayaur) in Tibet, China', Research in veterinary science, 90(2), pp. 238-240.

Elzein, E. A., Housawi, F., Bashareek, Y., Gameel, A., Al‐Afaleq, A. and Anderson, E. (2004) 'Severe PPR Infection in Gazelles kept under semi‐free range conditions', Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B, 51(2), pp. 68-71.

Jagtap, S. P., Rajak, K. K., Garg, U. K., Sen, A., Bhanuprakash, V., Sudhakar, S. B., Balamurugan, V., Patel, A., Ahuja, A. and Singh, R. K. (2012) 'Effect of immunosuppression on pathogenesis of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) virus infection in goats', Microbial pathogenesis, 52(4), pp. 217-226.

Kaukarbayevich, K. Z. (2009) 'Epizootological analysis of PPR spread on African continent and in Asian countries', African Journal of Agricultural Research, 4(9), pp. 787-790.

Mitchell, M. D., Beyeler, W. E., Finley, P. and Finley, M. (2017) 'Modeling Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) Disease Propagation and Control Strategies Using Memoryless State Transitions', Applied Science and Innovative Research, 1(SAND-2015-11001J).

Munir, M. (2015) Peste des petits ruminants virus. Springer.

Rezazadeh, F., Madadgar, O. and Poureini, F. (2016) 'Study of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in some border areas of Iran by Nested-PCR'.

Roger, F., Guebre Yesus, M., Libeau, G., Diallo, A., Yigezu, L. M. and Yilma, T. (2001) 'Detection of antibodies of rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants viruses (Paramyxoviridae, Morbillivirus) during a new epizootic disease in Ethiopian camels (Camelus dromedarius)'.

Image source: https://modernfarmertips.com/how-much-does-a-goat-cost/]

Fore words

Are you thinking about raising your own goats right in your backyard, but do not know how to begin or are unsure what supplies and daily care they will need? Have you recently started a goat herd and everything seems to be going wrong? If you answered yes to any of these questions, then this post is for you! Granted, raising goats can seem overwhelming. They are stubborn, impulsive, and frustrating if you don't know what you're doing. But it does not have to be that way. In this, keeping Goats in Sub Saharan Africa post, you will discover an in-depth overview that gives you everything you need to know about raising goats. Therefore, lets explore together the practical tips that show you how to start a side business selling goat milk, cheese, and meat!

Body

Before starting to keep goats the first step you need to know is how much does a goat cost and which type of goat is right for starting. The total goat raising cost depends on the type of goat enterprise, the goat species, purchase price, shelter, food, vet care, supplements, etc.

Type of goat

There are different type of goats that can be kept in Sub-Saharan Africa. These include meat goats, dairy goats or breeding goats. There are different goat price ranges, depending on the breed. For example there are indigenous breeds and exotic breeds. It is far easier to begin with indigenous breeds because they are adapted and relatively cheaper. Examples of local breeds in SSA are Arusi-Bale, Shukria, somali, Southern Abyssinian, red goat, black goat, Mubende, Karamojong, Kigezi, Small East African, Sebei, etc (Tilahun, Haile and Seid, 2019; Banerjee, Animut and Ermias, 2000; Onzima et al., 2018). For exotic breeds, the common exotic breeds include the Boer goat, Saaneni goat, Toggengburg, Black Bengal, etc. the Boer is preferred for meat while the Saanei is liked for milk. Meat  goats price is little higher than baby goat price. Therefore, the initial cost of the goats ranges from a few dollars to hundreds of dollars.

Fencing and shelter

One single goat needs a minimum grazing land of 23m², and the area should be well fenced 0.4m high.

Goats hate wet and cold weather. Therefore, they require a substantial shelter that can protect them from rain and droughts. They quickly get cold, so a reliable roof and strong wall can help them stay warm and dry. However allow adequate ventilation to avert respiratory diseases. The goats  are also susceptible to foot rots, so the floor needs to be self draining.

Imageaddress:https://tse2.mm.bing.net/th?id=OIP.-m6cq5PKTsZEtKaxeteW4wHaE7&pid=Api&P=0&w=227&h=152

The overall cost of shelter and fencing depend s on the material and space of land. 

Food and Supplements

Goats are mainly browsers. But they also graze on grass. Because of shortage of water and forage, malnutrition is the major limiting factor for profitable production of small ruminants particularly during the dry season. Heavy mortalities of animals have been recorded during severe drought periods in Somalia, Ethiopia, and Sudan. Goats feeding costs depend on how much goats eat based on breed, age, pregnancy and breeding season, weather, etc. Usually, a goat consumes 2% to 4% of its body weight in hay per day. That means a 45kg bundle of hay should serve 45 days for a 50kg goat or 25 days for a pregnant goat.

Source: http://www.fao.org/ppr/resources/infographics/en/

Goats need more hay throughout cold weather to keep warm, and pelleted goat food is the only option on those days. So in the winter season, the feeding cost increases. Moreover, if you don’t have suitable land for grazing, you may need to supplement their feed that their bodies require.

Veterinary Costs

Goats are sensitive to weather, so they need medical care anytime. It is always recommended to be prepared and have all the essential goat medical supplies on hand. Intermingling of animals in communal grazing land facilitates spread of infectious diseases such as peste des petits ruminants, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, contagious ecthyma, goat and sheep-pox, footrot, trypanosomosis, helminthosis and ectoparasitic infestations. Unrestricted movement of animal herds in search food grazing, to avoid disease epidemics or tribal conflicts have resulted in spread of diseases beyond country borders. Outbreaks of diseases such as Nairobi sheep disease, bluetongue and Rift valley fever usually occur when naive animals are moved into endemic areas. The occurrence of diseases under the extensive system is also precipitated by stress factors such as long-distance trekking in search for feed and water, intense heat and sunlight, malnutrition and poor housing systems. For example, it has been reported that, in some parts of Nigeria, high incidences of endoparasites in goats are most prevalent in extensively managed small ruminants compared to the intensively managed ones. Also, a higher incidence of coccidiosis is encountered in goats kept on solid rather than on slatted floors. In Cameroon, higher incidence of accidents has been observed among the extensive compared with intensively managed small ruminants. The high mobility of people and their animals in search of scarce resources, particularly under the nomadic system makes it difficult to devise or institute small ruminant improvement programmes.  (Yacob, Nesanet and Dinka, 2008; Birindwa et al., 2017; Nguna et al., 2019; Kusiluka and Kambarage, 1996)As well as you will also need the right livestock vet for regular checkups. So their prices for a checkup vary on location. Vet visits cost some money.

Always stay up to date and record the CDT dosage for goats on a goat vaccination schedule chart. For goat medication, you need to weigh your goats and record the right dosage for future treatment.

Other Maintenance

It’s essential to consider all maintenance expenses from the starting to keep track. That will help you to reduce expenses and earn more money in the long run. If you don’t plan to hire a worker to help you, that’s going to require some of your personal time as well. When recording your labour, you can cost per hour.

References

Banerjee, A., Animut, G. and Ermias, E. (2000) 'Selection and breeding strategies for increased productivity of goats in Ethiopia', The opportunities and challenges of enhancing goat production in east Africa, pp. 70-79.

Birindwa, B. A., George, G. C., Ntagereka, B. P., Christopher, O. and Lilly, B. C. (2017) 'Mixed infection of peste-des-petits ruminants and Capripox in goats in South Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo', Journal of Advanced Veterinary and Animal Research, 4(4), pp. 348-355.

Kusiluka, L. and Kambarage, D. (1996) 'Diseases of small ruminants: a handbook', Common Diseases of sheep and goats in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Nguna, J., Dione, M., Apamaku, M., Majalija, S., Mugizi, D. R., Odoch, T., Kato, C. D., Tumwine, G., Kabaasa, J. D. and Curtis, K. (2019) 'Seroprevalence of brucellosis and risk factors associated with its seropositivity in cattle, goats and humans in Iganga District, Uganda', The Pan African Medical Journal, 33.

Onzima, R., Upadhyay, M., Mukiibi, R., Kanis, E., Groenen, M. and Crooijmans, R. (2018) 'Genome‐wide population structure and admixture analysis reveals weak differentiation among Ugandan goat breeds', Animal genetics, 49(1), pp. 59-70.

Tilahun, H., Haile, A. and Seid, A. (2019) 'Phenotypic Characterization of Indigenous Goats in North Shewa Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia', International Journal of Research Studies in Agricultural Sciences, 5(7), pp. 44-55.

Yacob, H., Nesanet, B. and Dinka, A. (2008) 'Part II: Prevalences of major skin diseases in cattle, sheep and goats at Adama Veterinary Clinic, Oromia regional state, Ethiopia', Revue de Medecine Veterinaire, 159(8/9), pp. 455-461.

Every year, 1 out of every 6 Americans falls sick from food poisoning (Nyachuba, 2010). Most recover without lasting ill effects, but some die from it. In developing nations, near half of all deaths in children under 5 occur due to poor nutrition(Shikur, Deressa and Lindtjørn, 2016). Are our food systems failing us? What can we do to minimize the risks of food poisoning and nutrition? These are fair questions to ask because health is impossible without good nutrition, and for good nutrition, safe foods and balanced diet are vital. This piece of writing explores a strategy for action track 1 – access to safe and nutritious food- for the food summit 2021. We take a look at the garden sack for Sub Saharan Africa (SAA) as a game changer!

Choumoellier growing in a garden sack providing fresh, clean, reliable, and nutritious vegetable supply for good health. Technology benefit: - Green pollution free, water and land efficient.

Please visit: https://youtu.be/Z5zLqAjKAi0

According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) organization(Merrill, Earley and Rettig, 1992) risky factors causing lack of food safety in our food systems includes unsafe sources (farms/gardens, markets), poor personal hygiene, inadequate cooking, improper holding temperatures, and utilization of contaminated equipment. It should however be noted that climate change also exacerbates the problem of food poisoning.  Water scarcity for sanitation and poor-quality food e.g., due to aflatoxins increase diseases with potential increase in childhood mortality from diarrhea (e.g., bacillary dysentery, cholera) (Shirima et al., 2015). The garden sack strategy is presented to foster food safety and nutrition to developing nations especially in the context of SSA for one type of food i.e., vegetables.

What is vertical bag gardening? Is it a new technology? Well, the garden sack is not new! It has been used in Kenya, Uganda, Nigeria, and Zimbabwe to mention but a few, but has lacked scaling up(Gallaher et al., 2015). The vertical sack gardening uses a net shading bag as a soil potting (other materials like weevilled baskets, polythene, ordinary recycled sisal sack, etc., can be used too). After bagging the soil (mix manure and soil in the ratio of 1:1 near the site of the sack garden), then bag water the bag in readiness for transplanting seedlings. Steps on how to fill the sack will be in the next post. Please check out for this. When one eats vegetables grown from a garden sack, metaphorically s/he eats the garden sack!

GARDEN SACK RENDERS FOOD SAFE AND NUTRITIOUS; HOW?

The vertical sack garden ensures safety and good nutrition through numerous advantages it offers. A briefly look at five, often considered silver bullets.

1. Enhanced nutrition from one bag!

One bag can hold a variety vegetable - mixed cropping. Each vegetable supplies unique nutrients (Brindisi et al., 2020; Murakami, 2019). By growing high quality and different types of vegetables a diversified diet is attained with adequate minerals, essential amino acids, fats and vitamins would be ensured thereby providing good nutrition and ultimately sound human health.

2. Food safety increased.

Clean and fleshly plucked vegetables for home use. Avoid ‘Wet markets’ or supermarkets where contamination chance is high, vitamins loss and vegetables may go stale.

Bags are protected; fencing excludes stray animals, including dogs, chickens, wild birds etc., from vegetable contact. Zoonosis kicked. Use carefully selected soils. Use well aged manures and avoid heavy metal contamination soils a protection from animal pathogens and contamination. Uses treated domestic water or underground water for irrigation to avoid contamination to vegetables. Safety period between sprays and consumption can be observed. Balcony can be used where land is critically scarce e.g., like urban cities. Pollutions such as sewage leaks, smells and dust from driveways eliminated by a careful selection of the location of bag within the homestead.

3. Efficient on water, labour, and time. 

Drip irrigation solves the water shortage while meeting the ‘hungry diet’ for water by vegetable plants. Drip irrigation reduces the drudgery incidental of watering and weeding. Drip irrigation also avoids wetting of the leaves and thereby limits disease occurrences especially in solanaceous crops such as  tomatoes. It also prevents moulds in cauliflowers and broccoli. The dense foliage from plants around the bag conserves soil moisture by reduced evaporation thus water demand is low.
Suitable for areas hit by droughts due to climate change

4. Low land requirement – as low as 3 sq meters can hold at least a bag.

Land for gardening can be a challenge in cities due to urbanization and over population. To improve livelihood, vegetable sack gardening which takes as low as 3m² can be a solution for urban agriculture.

5. Increased production per unit area and a source income and employment

Lastly, access to enough safe and nutritious food is key to sustaining life and promoting good health. The option of the bag garden technology just demonstrated some advantages that the technology can reap towards zero hunger and good health for all. It remains to be seen whether someone would scale it up to ameliorate the daunting problem of track one – access to safe and nutritious foods amid climate change especially for developing nations including SAA.

References

Brindisi, L., Merchant, E. V., Eliver, B., Odhiambo, J., Night, E., Nyawir, T., Nyabinda, N., Weller, S., Simon, J. E. and Hoffman, D. (2020) 'Comparative nutritional analysis between African Indigenous Vegetables grown by urban farmers and those available for purchase in Kibera, Nairobi, Kenya: A Case Study', Journal of Medicinally Active Plants, 9(3), pp. 166-180.

Gallaher, C. M., WinklerPrins, A., Njenga, M. and Karanja, N. K. (2015) 'Creating space: Sack gardening as a livelihood strategy in the Kibera slums of Nairobi, Kenya'.

Merrill, R. A., Earley, L. E. and Rettig, R. A. (1992) 'Food and Drug Administration advisory committees'.

Murakami, S. (2019) Nutrition Tips For Your Health And Success—Nutrition Education Handouts For Feeding Program Recipients In Kibera, Kenya. California State University, Los Angeles.

Nyachuba, D. G. (2010) 'Foodborne illness: is it on the rise?', Nutrition reviews, 68(5), pp. 257-269.

Shikur, B., Deressa, W. and Lindtjørn, B. (2016) 'Association between malaria and malnutrition among children aged under-five years in Adami Tulu District, south-central Ethiopia: a case–control study', BMC Public Health, 16(1), pp. 1-8.

Shirima, C. P., Kimanya, M. E., Routledge, M. N., Srey, C., Kinabo, J. L., Humpf, H.-U., Wild, C. P., Tu, Y.-K. and Gong, Y. Y. (2015) 'A prospective study of growth and biomarkers of exposure to aflatoxin and fumonisin during early childhood in Tanzania', Environmental health perspectives, 123(2), pp. 173-178.

MSc. CCAFS - Student 2020/21 ; NUIG

BSc. Agriculture with Education

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