Southeast Asia Biosecurity Necessary to Combat Future Zoonotic Diseases
Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Diseases
The earliest known epidemic was found in mass graves in China about five thousand years ago and it is believed that it killed an entire village.[1] Other epidemics are known from history from ancient Greece, Rome, the Plague in Europe, as well as epidemics in the ancient Americas.[2] The difference between an epidemic and a pandemic is the areas that are affected.
Epidemics are seen throughout history and the disease affects people in certain regions but does not expand to be worldwide. Pandemics are the worldwide spread of disease. Pandemics have become more frequent as a movement has become easier around the globe. Recently we experienced our own pandemic of Covid-2019. On February 18, 2021, the WHO had 109,594,835 cases reported worldwide with 2,424,060 deaths.[3] Scientists believe that the human infectious COVID originated in either bats or pangolins and then transferred to humans through one of the exotic animal markets found in China.[4]
Diseases that transfer from animals to humans are known as zoonotic diseases. Many pandemics and epidemics can be contributed to zoonotic diseases. Zoonotic diseases are estimated to make up 60% of current infectious diseases and are predicted to be 75% of emerging diseases.[5] It is predicted that as the climate and world ecosystems change, more zoonotic diseases will be introduced into the population.
Climate Change
Climate change creates a change in migration patterns for migratory animals. Normal habitat is also changed as some indigenous plants die off due to the change and others thrive. Both of these changes in the environment allow diseases to come into contact with potential hosts, such as humans or animals that can come into contact with humans, that they have not come into contact with before.[6] Some examples of this are the zoonotic diseases found in Australia, the permafrost melting to release Anthrax, and the increase of epizootic episodes.
In Australia, Hendra disease is found in fruit bats and can be transmitted to horses resulting in neurological problems.[7] If transmitted to humans, it is almost always fatal. Lyssavirus is another disease that comes from the fruit bat. Every human that has contracted the disease has had influenza-type symptoms, fallen into a coma, and died.[8] Veterinarians have been the most common people to contract these diseases as they are the individuals who are around the infected animals. If proper protective equipment is not used it is likely that they will contract the zoonotic disease.
The permafrost melting is changing the environment and is releasing diseases. In 2016 a heatwave went through Siberia and reindeer began to die.[9] After an investigation, anthrax was shown to be the cause. The area had been anthrax-free since 1968.[10] Two people died and dozens had to be treated for the disease. The outbreak was investigated and it was found that as the permafrost had melted it had released historic anthrax. After taking a soil sample and running diagnostic tests, two different strains of anthrax were found. Scientists theorize that these strains were from two different historical anthrax outbreaks. These strains were introduced into the local reindeer population when the permafrost melted and then jumped to the humans that cared for them.
The changes in the climate will also likely lead to an increase in the rat population, which allows an increase in the flea population. If these populations increase, we are likely to see an epizootic episode where many rats contract the bubonic plague. An epizootic episode is defined as an outbreak of the disease in which there is an unusually large number of cases in an animal population. Human interaction with rats will increase the increase in population, leading to increased human plague risks.[11]
Another source of infectious disease is found in vector-borne diseases. Vector-borne diseases are diseases that pass from insects and arthropods to humans.[12] Some diseases that are categorized as vector-borne diseases are the West Nile virus, dengue, and chikungunya. Vector-borne diseases account for 17% of infectious diseases.[13] These diseases typically originate in warm tropical areas where mosquitos are found year-round. There are several examples of diseases migrating. West Nile virus was introduced to the United States in 1999 in New York Since then it has spread across the entire United States.[14] From 1999 to 2017 there were 22,999 neuroinvasive disease cases in humans.[15] The mosquito Aedes Aegypti spreads dengue fever, zika virus, chikungunya, and yellow fever.[16] These mosquitoes prefer warm climates with stagnant water. As climate change effects water sheds and the movement of water, these mosquitoes are likely to migrate and breed in areas that store water.[17] Lyme disease and tick-borne encephalitis has shown migration shifts in the tick populations with a link to abnormally high summer temperatures in Europe.[18]
Current Pandemic Vulnerabilities
As a population, humans have not adapted to learning how to control and prevent these diseases.[19] The current COVID pandemic is a testament to the lack of preparation and prevention. Only twenty years ago did the idea of pandemic prevention enter into the security scene and not many politicians are willing to give funding to research that is nearly impossible to calculate the probability of another pandemic.[20] There are a few success stories with disease outbreaks. Ebola is one of the few success stories. The diseases did not spread as they could have. The success comes from how quickly people moved to quarantine individuals and find the source of the disease. It was also helpful that the disease was not as easily transmissible as COVID or influenza.[21] Even though it did not spread as much as it could have, it took two years to move past the epidemic in the congo area.[22]
Southeast Asia
The Southeast Asian region consists of Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. The accelerating impacts of climate change are set to increase the migration and transmission of zoonotic diseases—a reality that Southeast Asian governments have insufficient resources and will have to address and that is likely to result in further regional and global pandemics.[23] History, infrastructure, and governmental institutions are three large factors that contribute to the lack of preventative measures found in Southeast Asian countries. It is likely that the WHO will have difficulty implementing biosecurity measures in Southeast Asia due to a history of being anti-western due to colonization and meddling as well as long-standing cultural traditions that many times do not work cohesively with western ideals. These experiences have created much distrust between the region and any western organization that tries to promote better health practices. This lack of trust creates a dynamic where collaboration is difficult and where these countries are going to be hesitant to receive help and unwilling to follow through with advice from any organization that is considered western.
Southeast Asia was highly colonized and then in World War II, those colonies were left defenseless to invading Japanese forces making them feel abandoned by the western colonizing counties.[24] When the colonizing countries came back to reclaim that territory, the native people didn’t trust them or want them there. Later, when Pol Pot was in power in Cambodia from 1975-79 anyone who showed any evidence of westernization was executed.[25] Over a quarter of the population were reported as executed. This sort of regime has caused the people of Cambodia to be leery of adopting anything that could be perceived as western.[26] Another obstacle is that the most common type of government in the region is a communist or recovering communist government. In Communist countries, it is typical that the government controls all of the resources and research.[27] If vaccine development, education about diseases, or biosecurity measures were to be developed, it would need government approval. Due to the economic state and corruption in the region, it is more likely that funds and resources would be sent elsewhere.[28]
Infrastructure is key in being able to combat zoonotic diseases.[29] According to the World Health Organization’s website, neglected zoonotic diseases (NTZ) are commonly found in areas with high levels of poverty and low resources. These neglected zoonotic diseases include rabies, echinococcosis, taeniasis/cysticercosis, foodborne trematodiases, human African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, and schistosomiasis.[30] All of these diseases are found in many Southeast Asian countries. An infrastructure that is helpful for zoonotic prevention has modes of communication to report outbreaks, ability to quarantine individuals, and practical biosecurity measures.[31] Some systems that can be put into place are better hygiene and sewer systems.[32] Simply washing your hands, having a clean environment, and not living with animals in your home can decrease disease transmission by 50%.[33] The World Health Organization’s mission for NTZs is to reduce the burden of neglected zoonotic diseases on poor and marginalized populations in low-resource settings by advocating for strengthening their prevention and control through effective collaboration with strategic partners and relevant sectors.[34]
Another obstacle that prevents Southeast Asian countries from being willing to combat zoonotic diseases is the governments that rule those countries. Many of the countries in those areas are considered communist countries which contributes to the lack of distribution of funding for vaccines, education about diseases, and implementation of better hygiene factors.[35] These same governments may have political agendas that supersede any desire to work with the World Health Organization. These are issues that need to be taken into account when trying to combat the migration and transmission of zoonotic diseases in Southeast Asia.
From the evidence provided, zoonotic and vector-borne diseases should be a rising concern among the world population with special attention given to the southeast Asian region. Climate change is causing environmental changes that allow diseases to come into contact and interact with new hosts, giving the disease new and ample ways to transmit to humans. As seen in COVID-19 and other cases, the precautions previously put in place fail to prevent the spread of these diseases. The system works on a case-by-case scenario and does nothing to try and find the causality of the diseases and therefore how to stop them. Education in animal health and hygiene as well as regulations need to be put in place to prevent these diseases. “Otherwise, we’re not going to be able to get a handle on this. We’re going to be constantly playing whack-a-mole with whatever the new emerging disease is .”[36]
[1] Owen Jarus, “20 Of the Worst Epidemics and Pandemics in History,” LiveScience (Purch, March 20, 2020), https://www.livescience.com/worst-epidemics-and-pandemics-in-history.html.
[2] Maude Bailey, “Plagues, Epidemics, Pandemics: A History of Some of the Previous Diseases the World Has Experienced,” SaltWire, April 20, 2020, https://www.saltwire.com/prince-edward-island/lifestyles/regional-lifestyles/plagues-epidemics-pandemics-a-history-of-some-of-the-previous-diseases-the-world-has-experienced-439731/.
[3] “WHO Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard.” World Health Organization. World Health Organization, 2021. https://covid19.who.int/.
[4] Tao Zhang, Qunfu Wu, and Zhigang Zhang, “Probable Pangolin Origin of SARS-CoV-2 Associated with the COVID-19 Outbreak,” Current Biology 30, no. 8 (2020): p. 1578, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.063.
[5] Salyer, Stephanie J., Rachel Silver, Kerri Simone, and Casey Barton Behravesh. “Prioritizing Zoonoses for Global Health Capacity Building—Themes from One Health Zoonotic Disease Workshops in 7 Countries, 2014–2016.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 23, no. 13 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2313.170418.
[6] University of Queensland. “Changing Climate May Affect Animal-to-Human Disease Transfer.” ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, May 1, 2019. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/05/190501114619.htm.
[7] “Fact Sheets – Rabies and Australian Bat Lyssavirus Infection Fact Sheet.” Rabies and Australian bat lyssavirus infection fact sheet – Fact sheets, July 2019. https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/infectious/factsheets/pages/rabies-australian-bat-lyssavirus-infection.aspx.
[8] Calligeros, Marissa. “Qld Bat Diseases ‘Virtually a Death Sentence’: Expert.” Brisbane Times. Brisbane Times, September 3, 2009. https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/qld-bat-diseases-virtually-a-death-sentence-expert-20090903-f9zw.html.
[9] Gross, Michael. “Permafrost Thaw Releases Problems.” Current Biology 29, no. 2 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.12.045.
[10] Gross, Micheal – List full citation, or if the same as above, list Ibid.
[11] Gage, Kenneth L.” Climate Change and Vector-Borne Diseases/Zoonotic Diseases” Slide Show. Accessed February 11, 2021
[12] Samanthi, “Difference Between Zoonotic and Vector Borne Diseases,” Compare the Difference Between Similar Terms (Differencebetween.com, December 15, 2019), https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-zoonotic-and-vector-borne-diseases/.
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[14] Petersen, Lyle R. “Epidemiology of West Nile Virus in the United States: Implications for Arbovirology and Public Health.” Journal of Medical Entomology 56, no. 6 (2019): 1456–62. https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjz085.
[15] Petersen, Lyle R. “Epidemiology of West Nile Virus in the United States: Implications for Arbovirology and Public Health.” Journal of Medical Entomology 56, no. 6 (2019): 1456–62. https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjz085.
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[21] Lewis, Wayne. “Disaster Response Expert Explains Why the U.S. Wasn’t More Prepared for the Pandemic > News > USC Dornsife.” USC Dornsife College News RSS. Accessed February 19, 2021. https://dornsife.usc.edu/news/stories/3182/why-u-s-wasnt-better-prepared-for-the-coronavirus/.
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[32] Bergquist, Robert, Jürg Utzinger, and Donald P. McManus. “Trick or Treat: The Role of Vaccines in Integrated Schistosomiasis Control.” PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 2, no. 6 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000244.
[33] “Show Me the Science – Why Wash Your Hands?” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, September 10, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/handwashing/why-handwashing.html.
[34] “Neglected Zoonotic Diseases.” World Health Organization. World Health Organization, November 25, 2016. https://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/zoonoses/infections_more/en/.
[35] Coker, Richard J, Benjamin M Hunter, James W Rudge, Marco Liverani, and Piya Hanvoravongchai. “Emerging Infectious Diseases in Southeast Asia: Regional Challenges to Control.” The Lancet 377, no. 9765 (2011): 599–609. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(10)62004-1.
[36] “How Does Climate Change Affect Disease?” Stanford Earth. Accessed February 19, 2021. https://earth.stanford.edu/news/how-does-climate-change-affect-disease#gs.tsj5o0.