I was given an opportunity to work as a Research Intern with Self Help Africa (SHA). As stated on their website, SHA is a research project empowering West and North African smallholder farmers and small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to facilitate sustainable intensification of African farming systems. Under the guidance of Paul Wagstaff, Head of the Global Technical Advisory and Research Team at SHA, I provided support on two research projects. Firstly, I was tasked with writing a Technical Paper draft entitled Potential Impacts of Climate Change and Increased Ocean Acidification on the Production of the West African Mangrove Oyster(Crassostrea tulipa). My second research project entailed Sustainable intensification of food production through resilient farming systems in West& North Africa was a collaborative effort between SHA and SustInAfrica. Further detail regarding these two projects are outlined below.
The Technical Paper draft Potential Impacts of Climate Change and Increased Ocean Acidification on the Production of the West African Mangrove Oyster(Crassostrea tulipa) examines how the mangrove oyster has historically and currently served as an important source of income and nutrition for innumerable persons in several West African countries, including The Gambia. The Gambia’s brackish inland waters – its rivers, estuaries, and tributaries – provide sprawling mangroves and favorable conditions for shelters and nurseries of oysters. Despite these ideal environments for culturing oysters, the Gambian oyster industry remains underdeveloped with no market outside the country. The harvesting, processing and marketing components of the Gambian oyster industry are dominated by women. Increasing ocean acidity negatively affects the reproduction and growth of the European Flat Oyster Ostrea edulis and the Atlantic/ American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) however little is known about the effects on The West African mangrove oyster (Crassostrea tulipa). The West African Mangrove oyster is a brackish water species. The freshwater may dilute the increasingly acidic seawater, protecting the oyster beds from the effects of ocean acidification. Rain may rise in The Gambia river basin by 2040, though there is a high level of uncertainty. The dual destructive consequences of rising sea temperatures and increased acidification threaten the survivability of the oysters and jeopardize the livelihoods and food security of The Gambia’s most marginalized peoples. More research is required to understand the potential impacts of climate change and ocean acidification on mangrove oyster production.
SustInAfrica is a research project empowering West and North African smallholder farmers and small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to facilitate sustainable intensification of African farming systems. SustInAfrica consists of 16 partner organizations from 11 countries. The project began in January 2020 with a budget of 7 million EUR, and will continue through 2025.
The Sustainable intensification of food production through resilient farming systems in West & North Africa research project utilized the IPCC Working Group I (WGI): Sixth Assessment Report's Interactive Atlas to determine near-term climate change predictions (2021-2040) for Burkina Faso, Niger, Egypt, Ghana and Tunisia, and how these predictions might affect the production of economically valuable and nutritionally important crops in each country. The target crops in this study are:
In order to 'Build Back Better' countries must harness low-carbon investment opportunities to revitalize economies while reducing their greenhouse gas emission. To Build Back Better means pulling people out of poverty and creating more jobs which sustain livelihoods; it means fostering resilience to shocks in the future like disease outbreaks and the detrimental impacts of climate change. Building Back Better also means 'Building Back Greener.' The ever-evolving COVID-19 pandemic has given new momentum to the need to respond to climate change.
A chorus of global voices, from the Pope to the head of the UN and the presidents of Germany, Austria and Switzerland, among many others, have pledged a 'green recovery.' Globally, GHG emissions fell by 8% or 2.6 GtCO2 in 2020. This decline in GHG emissions has been seen as a 'silver lining’ of the COVID-19 crisis, but estimates from the UN Environment Programme show that global GHG emissions must continue to fall 7.6% every year from 2020 to 2030 to keep surface temperature increases to less than 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
The high emissions emanating from the transportation sector contribute heavily to air pollution, producing 23% of global energy related CO2 emissions. Efforts to decarbonize this fossil fuels reliant sector will be essential to Building Back Greener during the ongoing COVID-19 recovery phase. The creation of the necessary infrastructure for mass adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is an area where global leaders in the private and public sector might be able to Build Back Greener during this post COVID -19 reconstruction. While EVs offer an opportunity to produce reliable transportation with lower emissions, public transport, as well as cycling and walking infrastructure, must be explored and advanced as well.
Due to its environmental impacts, increasingly less expensive batteries and growing numbers of models offered by automakers, it is becoming increasingly popular for green transport stimulus investments to prioritize government incentives and charging infrastructure to advance EV adoption. Adoption of EVs has been shown to reduce GHG emissions, particularly in countries that have a high percentage of electricity generated from renewable energy, i.e. Norway, Iceland and Sweden. Internal combustion engines (ICE) under the hood of most conventional vehicles produce direct emissions through the tailpipe, as well as through evaporation from the vehicle's fuel system and during the fueling process. Conversely, EVs produce zero direct emissions. There are also significant air pollution reduction benefits associated with replacing ICE vehicles with EVs. These emissions reductions improve the overall quality of life and health outcomes in regions with high EV adoption rates.
Globally, USD86.1 billion in green transport spending was provided for COVID-19 recovery programs in 2020, with significant spending across numerous subsections of the transportation sector. The largest fraction of this spending was directed towards investments in EV subsidies (USD21.5 billion), with significant investments in existing public transport capacity expansions (USD20.5 billion) and EV transfer programs (USD11.0 billion). Smaller amounts were allocated to EV charging infrastructure (USD7.9 billion) and cycling and walking infrastructure (USD4.3 billion).
EV Adoption in Poland
Historically, the Polish government has been hesitant to join the rest of Europe in setting strong emissions reduction targets. However, shifting economic conditions for renewable energy and green transport are showing the beginning of a change in Polish climate action policy. During June 2020, The Polish government announced a USD2.1 billion green investment stimulus package. This stimulus package contained several policies designed to promote EV production and uptake. Poland is a major producer of passenger vehicles in Europe. However, as of 2019, only 0.5% of Polish-produced vehicles were fully electric, compared to 12% of Swedish vehicles, 4.2% of Chinese, and 4.0% of German. The government’s policies aimed to increase the cost competitiveness of EVs, position Poland as a leader in the EV market through both production and purchasing incentives in the near future.
Photo Credit: EMP/steemit.com
The green stimulus policies include EV subsidies aimed at local governments, entrepreneurs, and individuals, as well as support for new electric public transport, taxis, and school buses. Production support for EV manufacturing and for charging stations are also included in the policy. Total EV-related spending from the package is expected to be PLN668 million (USD178 million). These policies are effective both in providing economic stimulus through job creation and strengthening Poland’s EV production and adoption into the future. The UN Environment Programme and the Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment at Oxford described Poland as a “current leader” in green recovery spending, alongside Finland, Norway, Denmark, Germany and France.
Massachusetts' Approach to EV Incentives
In spite of the numerous obstacles resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, the Northeastern American state of Massachusetts is continuing to pursue its statewide transition to low/zero-carbon vehicles. As economies recover and all methods of transportation start to rebound from 2020-2021 disruptions, there is an inevitable return to ‘business as usual’, resulting in an increase in ICE cars on the road and an inevitable spike in transportation-related emissions.
To reduce the impact of this return to 'business as usual', Massachusetts has reinforced its commitment to electric vehicle transition through an expansion of the Massachusetts Offers Rebates for Electric Vehicles (MOR-EV) program. The goal of the MOR-EV program, originally established in 2014, is to reduce air pollution levels and GHG emissions through individual purchases of electric vehicles. Offering a USD2,500 rebate to consumers who purchase a new electric vehicle, and a USD1,500 rebate for plug-in hybrids, the MOR-EV program incentivizes purchase of EVs by making these vehicles a more affordable, and therefore more obtainable, option. During June 2020, the administration of Governor Charlie Baker and Lieutenant Governor Karyn Polito expanded this rebate program beyond personal EV vehicles to include commercial and non-profit vehicle fleets.
Photo Credit: Nationalgrid US
MOR-EV is funded by the Executive Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs’ Department of Energy Resources and administered state-wide by the Center for Sustainable Energy. As of February 2021, 16,378 rebates have been granted, and USD33,296,700 in rebates have been reserved or issued. Through incentives to Massachusetts consumers, non-profits, and companies, the MOR-EV program demonstrates one way to bolster zero emission vehicle sales as the world emerges from the COVID-19 pandemic.
EV's Are Not a Panacea: Public Transit Has a Role in Building Back Greener.
The last decade has seen rapid development in green transport technology. Governments around the world can effectively support the transition from fossil fuels based transportation to low-and zero-carbon options through continued investments in EVs and green transportation infrastructure. Mobility restriction caused by COVID-19 have impacted transport practices around the world, especially in sizable urban centers. The pandemic's lasting impact on public transport demand is unclear, but a move towards de-densification of public transport services is needed to safely return to normal, pre-pandemic use. Particular attention should be paid to densely populated urban centers like Indian, Mexico and Columbia which historically and currently experience extreme levels of transportation congestion. These extreme levels of transport congestion are both highly polluting and expensive.
Photo Credit: The Times of India
If an urban center already possesses a public transportation system, or is actively constructing one, fiscal stimulus investments could be used to increase the scale of electrifying the system. These investments could quickly create many jobs. Public transport investments also yield environmental and human health returns. Significant reductions in GHG emissions and air pollution can be observed when public transportation lessens ICE automobile transport. Electric and hydrogen-based public transport solutions also yield significant energy efficiency benefits. Evidence suggests that public transport is associated with increased safety relative to individual automobile travel. However, particular care and concern must be taken to ensure that public transport addresses safety issues. Gender-inclusive transport policies must be drafted alongside green public transport stimulus spending in order to address the disproportionate impact of restricted transit and safety of women and other gender minorities.
Sources and Further Reading
Funke, S. Á., Sprei, F., Gnann, T., & Plötz, P. (2019). How much charging infrastructure do electric vehicles need? A review of the evidence and international comparison. Transportation research part D: transport and environment, 77, 224-242.
O’Callaghan, B. J., & Murdock, E. (2021, March 10). Are We Building Back Better? Evidence from 2020 and Pathways for Inclusive Green Recovery Spendinghttps://www.unep.org/resources/publication/are-we-building-back-better-evidence-2020-and-pathways-inclusive-green. UNEP. Retrieved January 4, 2022, from https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/35281/AWBBB.pdf
Photo Credit: Kunal Shinde/World Resource Institute
The COP26 World Leaders Summit ‘Action on Forests and Land Use’ brought together a crowd of governments, companies, financial sector representatives, and NGO leaders to make ambitious promises regarding forest preservation and land use stewardship. More than 140 countries made a significant pledge to undertake the collective effort of halting land degradation and forest loss by 2030. The Glasgow Leaders' Declaration on Forest and Land Use was among the first and most audacious announcements made at COP26, which ended after weeks of negotiation on November 13, 2021. Countries spanning from the northern forests of Canada and Russia to the tropical rainforests of Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo endorsed the Glasgow Leaders’ Declaration on Forest and Land Use. Together, these countries contain 85% of the world’s forests, an area of over 13 million square miles. In the Declaration, leaders across world governments and industries affirmed the vital role forests play in removing and storing carbon, adapting to the impacts of climate change, and maintaining healthy ecosystem services. Leaders vowed "transformative" action through collaborative efforts to conserve forests, draft sustainable trade and development policies, reduce human vulnerabilities, restructure agricultural policies, and increase financial incentives that will assist in the transition to more sustainable land use.
"We have to stop the devastating loss of our forests,"- and- "end the role of humanity as nature's conqueror, and instead become nature's custodian."
UK Prime, Minister Boris Johnston
Funding pledges followed the declaration, totaling US$19.2 billion. These funding pledges will be supported by US$12 billion of public finance from 12 countries from 2021 – 2025. These billions will be used to support activities in developing countries, including restoring degraded land, reducing wildfires and advancing the rights of indigenous communities. The public sector funding will be accompanied by US$7.2 billion of private sector funding. CEOs from Aviva, Schroders, Axa and more than 30 financial institutions - owning US$8.7 trillion in global assets – will also commit to, by 2025, eliminating their investment and lending portfolios linked to commodity-driven deforestation. The commitment is focused on addressing the agricultural commodities most responsible for the lion’s share of deforestation impacts: beef, soy, palm oil, and pulp/ paper.
"There is no viable solution to the climate crisis without forest and land management by Indigenous Peoples and local communities who have proven that they are the best guardians of the world’s forests”
President of the Ford Foundation, Darren Walker
Included in this nearly US$20 billion financial pledge was US$1.7 billion allocated to help Indigenous peoples and local communities (IPLC) exercise decision-making and design roles in climate programs. The funding - sourced from the UK, Norway, Germany, the US, the Netherlands, and partnership with 17 funders - will support IPLCs in their proven role of protecting the tropical forests that are vital to protecting the planet from climate change, biodiversity loss, and pandemic risk. While the majority of the money in the fund will come from governments, charitable foundations including the Ford Foundation, Bezos Earth Fund, Bloomberg Philanthropies, Arcadia, Wyss Foundation and the Rainforest Trust are contributing more than US$600 million. Historically, few donors have prioritized IPLC tenure and forest management as part of their development aid. A recent study by the Norwegian Rainforest Foundation showed that Indigenous communities and organizations receive less than 1% of the climate funding meant to reduce deforestation; just US$270 million per year on average.
Photo Credit: Paul Ellis/ Agence France-Presse via Getty Images
In order for a historic pledge like the Glasgow Declaration to succeed, its goals and priorities must be embedded in new ways of achieving economic growth and development which do not further contribute to deforestation and land degradation. Moving beyond a paper pledge and televised announcement to impactful change will require countries to unify and drive system reform across all five areas of “transformative action” listed in the declaration:
sustainable production and consumption;
infrastructure;
trade;
finance and investment;
and support for smallholders, Indigenous peoples and local communities, and their role in forest stewardship.
Nine years is not long to halt forest loss and land degradation. For this to happen, countries, companies, and financial institutions must be accountable for following through on their pledges to end deforestation. They should develop clear and transparent implementation plans, specify measurable performance indicators, and set specific milestones of achievement on the pathway to the 2030 goals. They should openly and regularly monitor, report and verify- through an independent observer- the progress of their deforestation pledges. For the private sector to deliver on their promise of sustainable business and financing, companies should trace and disclose the origins of agricultural commodities they purchase.
While the Glasgow Leaders' Declaration on Forest and Land Use and related pledges are a welcome affirmation of coordinated diplomatic efforts to reduce deforestation and pivot to more sustainable land use, one cannot help but wonder if this latest declaration will fall short. Many of the same countries also signed the 2014 New York Declaration on Forests which pledged to halve deforestation by 2020 and end it completely by 2030. A shocking 12.2 million hectares of forest cover were lost in the tropics in 2020, an increase of 12% on 2019. This ambitious pledge to end deforestation in less than a decade will be monitored by a world, especially its youth, that demands immediate climate action.
Photo Credit: Amanda Perobelli/REUTERS
Looking Ahead: Upcoming Global Food, Agriculture, Climate Change and International Development Conferences
The IFIAD 2021 Annual Conference was broken into two sessions. Each session featured unique perspectives on recent and upcoming UN summits on food systems and climate change. The sessions were accompanied by a panel comprised of academics, NGO members, legislators and UN representatives, each bringing a diversity of insight, criticism and forward- building momentum to IFIAD's three hour dialogue. The first session, entitled 'Building on the Food Systems Summit - Priorities and Next Steps,' examined key takeaways from the recent 2021 UN Food Systems Summit. Maximo Cullen, Chief Economist of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), opened the discussion with an overview of the The Summit’s Action Tracks. The five Action Tracks include:
Ensure access to safe and nutritious food for all;
Shift to sustainable consumption patterns;
Boost nature positive production;
Advance equitable livelihoods;
Build resilience to vulnerabilities, shocks and stress.
The second half of the IFIAD Conference was entitled "Looking towards COP26: how can agriculture and food systems support climate change goals." This session began with opening remarks by Professor, Mark Howden, Vice Chair of IPCC's Working Group II. With cautious optimism, the panel addressed several key issues that bridge the gap between the 2021 UN Food Systems Summit and the approaching COP26. These included understanding the limitations of COP26 and its inability to be the catalyst for all systematic changes in the global food system, the importance of youth movements in collective action on climate change, and the acceptance that their will undoubtably be winners and losers following agreements made at events like COP26 and the Food Systems Summit. However, to continue having further discussions about climate change adaptation and food systems resilience, both winner and losers must be at the same negotiating table.
"When it comes to trust, I think we need to urgently reconsider the idea that self regulation by industry is an option as a pathway towards sustainability."
-Sinead Mowlds
Both panels stressed the importance of collaboration when implementing transformational change in food systems. This can take the form of multi-stakeholder in-country approaches to climate change adaptation or continuing to host Paris Agreement producing global events like COP. Despite the cross panel advocacy for intersectional collaboration, areas of polarization still arose during the discussion. These areas of contention focused on the 'credibility' of the private sector presence - multinational agri-businesses and finance institutions- at the 2021 UN Food Systems Summit. Questions such as "do multinationals and bankers need a larger platform for influence in the global food system" and "do corporate sustainability goals align with national emissions reduction commitments" were considered. Most panelists seemed to agree trade plays a vital role to improving a food system, but there are instances when a country's macro economic priorities and deregulation of the private sector do not contribute to bolstering its food system.
"The levels of extreme poverty and inequality we were facing were exacerbated by Covid-19."
- Maximo Cullen
During the IFIAD Conference, two issues were introduced but seemed to be largely undiscussed. Arguably the most topical and pressing issue is how the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic is expected to affect food systems focused SDGs and negotiations at COP26. Troubling statistics during Maximo's presentation revealed that globally 161 million more people slid into chronic hunger in 2020. The Covid-19 pandemic has become a multi-year barrier to achieving food security and food system resilience to climate change. While time was limited and numerous topics were discussed, building resilience to Covid-19 related shocks to the global food system was not further discussed among either panel. Additionally, there was mention of the numerous food and climate justice activists, indigenous groups, labor unions and farmers who protested both the Summit and pre-Summit. While the Summit's commitment to representation of marginalized voices should be applauded, clearly innumerable individuals still call into questions the close links to private sector corporate entities. Little conversation was had about who these groups were and why they felt the need to protest the intentions and stakeholders of the Summit. In order for the UN to continue bringing the voices of diverse and underrepresented groups to the 'Global Food Systems' table, the grievances of those who have protested past summits cannot be ignored.
Welcome to my blog for my Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (MScCCAFS) program at the National University of Ireland Galway. This blog will include periodic posts highlighting areas of interests and research conducted during my time in the 2021-2022 MScCCAFS program. Stay tuned for future posts discussing the intersection of climate change, agriculture and food security.
