My Research Thesis

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I was privileged to do my thesis research project in collaboration with the Leg4dev project at the University of Galway whose objective is to promote the scaling up of legume production in smallholder farmers. My project aimed at identifying opportunities, barriers, and innovations for accelerating seed multiplication rates for more effective scaling up of quality seed legumes globally. We conducted a comprehensive literature review, which will be complemented with a survey from legume seed experts on barriers, opportunities, and innovations for increasing seed multiplication rates.

The availability and accessibility of quality legume seed is the foundation of improved crop productivity to meet global nutritional needs and for environmental sustainability. However, legume seed availability remains a challenge for most developing countries. The seed multiplication rates determine the number of seeds that can be acquired from a single sown seed that is suitable for farmers’ use. When a new variety is first bred by a breeder and/or released as a registered variety by the national system, only small quantities of seed are typically available – this is called nucleus seed. Therefore, for grain crops, seed multiplication is important as it has implications for how rapidly and cost-effectively seed quantities can be bulked up from initial breeders’ seed to the quantities of certified seed that are necessary each season for farmers to plant(Boelt et al., 2015).

Seed propagated crops such as grain legumes and cereals, the seed multiplication factor, seed rate and grain yield differ across species and can also differ within species which is influenced by several barriers that limit the crops to achieve their potential yields. The differences affect the economic gains of both the seed producers and the farmers which determines the choice of investing in seed commercialization for seed companies and seed buying for farmers (Chibarabada et al., 2017). Through the research, several barriers affecting the seed multiplication factor were identified to be climate variability, poor agricultural practices in relation to seed production, and lack of emphasis in breeding programs on quality seed production. As shown in figure one when one or more of the factors coincide it can result in total losses of seed.

Figure 1: Legume species have different optimum growing conditions which impact seed production positively or negatively. The interaction and relationships between these factors can affect the overall seed multiplication factor of different legume species positively or negatively (Image was created on 20/06/2023 with BioRender.com).

As the climate changes, weather patterns are expected to change with countries experiencing floods, high temperatures, and reduced rains to none. Currently, the legumes seed sector already faces challenges of poor availability of improved seeds. The seed sector will face more challenges such as plants’ poor response to abiotic and biotic stresses which may create pressures in improved seed availability. Seed is the most vital agricultural component so whatever the challenges there must be an ongoing supply of good quality seed for continued production of food for the growing population and for achievement of sustainable goal sustainable development goals (SDG 2) of ending hunger, food security and improved nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture.

Our findings consider that improving seed multiplication rates can best be achieved by the integration of technological innovations into both breeding and seed multiplication programs and by improving agronomic practices supporting seed multiplication phases of the seed supply cycle. Policy review is also important to provide an enabling environment for technological advancements to support research programs in legume seed production.

References

Boelt, B., Julier, B., Karagić, Đ., & Hampton, J. (2015). Legume Seed Production Meeting Market Requirements and Economic Impacts. Critical reviews in plant sciences, 34(1-3), 412-427. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352689.2014.898477

Chibarabada, T. P., Modi, A., & Mabhaudhi, T. (2017). Expounding the Value of Grain Legumes in the Semi-and Arid Tropics. Sustainability, 2017. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9010060

Farooq, M., Gogoi, N., Barthakur, S., Baroowa, B., Bharadwaj, N., Alghamdi, S. S., & Siddique, K. H. (2017). Drought stress in grain legumes during reproduction and grain filling. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 203(2), 81-102.

Concept of Circularity: Second-Hand Clothes

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In this era of fast fashion, consumers buy every trending fashion or new clothes for every occasion due to their cheap prices. It is estimated that currently, people are buying 60 percent more clothes than they require. However, the production of clothes has detrimental environmental impacts such as pollution resulting from transportation, the production of cotton, the production of synthetic textiles and chemicals, washing and manufacturing of clothes. For instance, it is estimated that to produce 1 ton of dyed fabric it takes 200 tonnes of fresh water. According to UNEP, the fashion industry accounts for 2-8 percent of total global carbon emissions and it is the second biggest consumer of water.

Most of the second-hand clothes end up in landfills while others go to donations or markets for used clothes. Although the majority of these used clothing items are frequently donated from developed nations with the best of intentions, many of them are turning into environmental hazards. In Ghana for example, approximately 15 million individual pieces of worn clothing are thought to come in the country each week, that’s according to The OR Foundation, a United States human rights and environmental NGO; nevertheless, 40% are thrown away due to poor quality. Thus, in my opinion, donating clothes is not equal to creating less environmental impact because most of the second-hand clothes donated or in markets also end up in landfills before continuing into the ocean. Recently, Some African countries like Rwanda have started banning second-hand clothes and other countries may follow suit sooner or later. The question is what will be the fate of the used clothes if exports decline? 

Figure 1: Clothes landfill in Ghana(source: the guardian)

Well, maybe it is time to plan and start thinking of using the concept of circularity in an honest manner in industries rather than in a green washing way as companies are turning into sustainable fashion industries. In simple terms, a circular economy system requires the use of resources as long as possible to utilize the maximum economic value as much as possible (Geissdoerfer et al., 2020). In this context, circularity means less waste, reusing and recycling old clothes which minimizes pollution.

Apart from donations, what other products can come from second-hand clothes? As shown in Figure 2 below second-hand clothes can be turned into several beautiful products including bedding, decorative pillows, mops, bags, rugs, and carpets. For instance, Mops made from used clothes are common in most local markets in most African countries. Such initiatives can be improved and make such mops even available in shopping malls.

Figure 2: Bag,Mop, Rug, and Pillow made from used clothes

It is important for fashion industries to trace their product’s end life through partnering with other companies that can use the clothes like raw materials and provide incentives to individuals who create products out of them other than just taking used clothes back for donations. School curriculum should also consider the inclusion of creative crafts from second-hand clothes.

Geissdoerfer, M., Pieroni, M. P., Pigosso, D. C., & Soufani, K. (2020). Circular business models: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 277, 123741.

https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/un-alliance-sustainable-fashion-addresses-damage-fast-fashion

https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/environmental-costs-fast-fashion

https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2023/may/31/stop-dumping-your-cast-offs-on-us-ghanaian-clothes-traders-tell-eu

https://www.dw.com/en/used-clothes-choke-both-markets-and-environment-in-ghana/a-60340513

AI-powered soil testing: a hope for smallholder farmers in Africa

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Soil testing is the process of analyzing soil samples to determine their composition and characteristics. Soil testing can help to determine the health of the soil. The tests help to determine available nutrients, Ph, organic matter, soil structure, and microbiology. The status of the soil is important for the economic and efficient use of inputs during crop production. Proper soil sampling is required after harvesting as it will help decide suitable crops for the area and other input requirements such as fertilizers.  Knowing the status of the soil will also help to balance chemistry which promotes soil biodiversity, disease, and pest tolerance and increase nutrient utilization.

Plants require macro and micronutrients for growth and productivity. The most important macronutrients include nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and potassium, which is commonly used in large quantities for plant fertilizers production. Micronutrients include boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc. These nutrients are available in some fertilizers and are important for plant development and crop production as activators of many plant functions. Plants also require carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen which contribute to making up the bulk weight. Through soil sampling, one can determine the presence or absence of the above-mentioned macro and micronutrients in the soil.

Soil testing for most countries involves site identification, sample collection, and Laboratory testing. This process is commonly done as part of projects and commercial farmers who willingly request and pay for the services which cost between $10 and $50 per sample. Most smallholder farmers grow crops based on the history of crops that have been grown by their forefathers and apply fertilizers based on blanket recommendations yet soils in Africa are so diverse and differ in properties even within the same district. Soil testing is expensive which is hard for smallholder farmers to wish for, but its importance cannot be overlooked. For example, after doing soil tests a certain Kenya farmer realized that there was a lack of calcium in the soil. The farmer was able to correct the lack of calcium which was contributing to recurrent blossom end rot diseases in capsicum and tomatoes through the application of lime, and it resulted in improved yields. 

Recently, an Ethiopian company called Omishtu – Joy has created a fast soil testing machinery that is attached to an Artificial intelligence-powered mobile application. The mobile application in turn advises farmers on the best practices to be applied. The machine tests the soil through device sensors placed in the soil. The machine transmits soil information to the mobile application in less than 10 minutes. The parameters tested include pH levels, nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, humidity, radiation, temperature, and soil moisture. This technology is beneficial for smallholder farmers who can get information on their soil profiles faster than the usual way of sample collection and laboratory testing. It costs $0.37 for a single test which is cheaper than laboratory testing which can cost between $10 and $50 per sample and takes longer to get results. The technology has benefited 5000 farmers in Ethiopia with soil testing services.

Figure 1: Omishtu-Joy Soil testing device

If this technology would extend to other African countries it can help to improve soil parameters which will in turn improve the productivity of crops. Having this machinery would ease a load of extension workers on services through the provision of realistic advice to farmers on crops and soil-related challenges. For instance, this technology would be beneficial for manure-making campaigns which would help extension workers determine the type of manure tailored to the geographical nutrient deficiencies. This will help in minimising the use of nitrogen-based synthetic fertilizers that are contributing to climate change and are often overused in efforts to increase yields yet crop productivity is determined by other soil properties and nutrient availability.

Figure 2: Manure-making demonstrations in Central Region Malawi

References

(https://www.soils4africah2020.eu/serverspecific/soils4africa/images/Documents/4.2AENGProtocolsforfieldsurvey_v3_20_03_2023.pdf).

https://www.soils4africa-h2020.eu/s4a-maps-agricultural-land-in-africa

https://www.indexinsuranceforum.org/blog/ai-powered-soil-testing-amplifies-farmer-productivity-and-climate-resilience-ethiopia

UNTOLD IMPACTS OF CYCLONE FREDDY ON SOYBEAN PRODUCTION IN MALAWI

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Malawi is a country in the south eastern part of Africa with a population of 20,599,013. Recently the country was hit by cyclone Freddy which caused heavy rains in the southern part of the country from 11th to 13th March 2023. The floods claimed 1,434 lives and more than 564,000 people were displaced (Concern, 2023). Additionally, the floods resulted in the loss of infrastructure, crops and livestock. Approximately 15,000 hectares of crops were destroyed in the southern part of the country(Jimani, 2023).

   Figure 1: Maize field lost to floods in southern region of Malawi.

There are other impacts that the cyclone had on other crops in other regions that did not experience floods but just heavy rains. In the 2022/23 cropping season, a lot of farmers have experienced tremendous losses in Soybeans production which is commonly grown as a cash crop which accounts for up to 50% in foreign currency earnings. Most of the fields had good crop stands, good flowering rates and pod formation through the evidence gathered from pictures shared by people on social media. I followed keenly on different conversations on Facebook where people were complaining about very low yields with harvests of 20 – 300 Kilograms only on a hectare from the potential yield of 3000 kilograms per hectare (Kananji et al., 2013). In the conversations, people shared the root cause of their misfortune as Soy rust a disease locally known as “Chiwawu”.

Soy rust is caused by fungi known as Phakopsora pachyrhizi which is spread by wind-blown spores which can travel long distances. The spores appear as small blisters at the lower surface of leaves but as they mature, they become light powdery spores. The pathogen causes lesions on the upper surface of leaves which are yellow and darken to dark brown with time. The development of Soy rust is favoured by prolonged periods of wetness of 6 – 12 hours and temperatures of 15 – 18 degrees Celsius and spores can be produced after 2 days (Murithi et al., 2016). The spore’s germination and leaf infection are dependent on a relative humidity of 75 – 80 percent. The pathogen causes losses when the infection occurs during the flowering and pod development phase. The infection reduces the photosynthesis rate due to the affected leaves lesions and premature defoliation. This affects the accumulation of dry matter which results in up to 90% losses in yields due to a decrease in the number of filled pods, low seed weight and reduced seed size (Murithi et al., 2016).

The above-known facts on Soy rust take us to the conclusion of what really happened to Soybeans production for the 2022/23 cropping season in Malawi. Cyclone Freddy contributed to the wide infection and widespread distribution of Soy rust by providing the pathogens with favourable conditions. My analysis is that the infection of Soy rust coincided with the pod – filling phase since a lot of pictures shared on social media showed green healthy plants at the flowering and pod – formation phase. It is likely that farmers mistook the yellowing of leaves for the maturity of the crops. It may also be that farmers noted the infection and decided to ignore it as commonly farmers do not treat diseases when the crop has already reproduced and approaching maturity. Later, farmers only came to be shocked during the harvesting period when they noticed the emptiness of pods and reduced yields. Currently, Soybeans is trading at Mk800 from Mk450 in the 2021/22 season according to prices set by government.

  Figure 2: Soy rust infested field in the central region of Malawi

It is important for the government to seriously consider plant pests and disease forecasting the same way it is done with weather updates on all platforms be it radio, television or social media. It is important to also embrace the social media platforms such as Facebook and Tiktok as communication tools for farming tips and information. The smallholder farmers may not be on some of the platforms such as Facebook, but their children and grandchildren are there and can equally share the information in their household. The Government should also consider partnering with organizations and private seed companies on bundling up seeds with crop production manuals. The manuals can share information on the most destructive pests and diseases and their management. These strategies may help to save farmers from preventable losses in these hard times of climate change, inflation and food insecurity.

References

Concern. (2023). Malawi: Fighting the ravages of climate change with smart agriculture.

Jimani, H. (2023). 15,000 Hectares Of Crops Destroyed By Cyclone Freddy – FUM. Zodiak Malawi.

Kananji, G., Yohane, E., Siyeni, D., Mtambo, L., Kachulu, L., Chisama, B., Malaidza, H., Tchuwa, F., & Mulekano, O. (2013). A guide to soybean production in Malawi. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.4982.2723

Murithi, H., Beed, F., Tukamuhabwa, P., Thomma, B., & Joosten, M. (2016). Soybean production in eastern and southern Africa and threat of yield loss due to soybean rust caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi. Plant pathology, 65(2), 176-188.

Tackling Climate Change Through Agriculture

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Figure 1: Beans at Jenda market in Mzimba,Malawi

As a student pursuing a master’s degree in Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security at the University of Galway, I am passionate about the intersection of agriculture and climate change. Through my research project, I hope to deepen my understanding of the ways in which agriculture practices contribute to climate change and how they can be modified to mitigate its effects.

Agriculture is essential to our lives, as it provides us with food, clothing, and supports our economies. However, in the face of an increasingly urgent climate crisis, it is more critical than ever to examine how we can make agriculture more sustainable.

In particular, I am interested in exploring the role of legumes in sustainable agriculture, including their potential to help us tackle climate change and food security issues. Through this blog, I aim to share my research findings, insights, and experiences on these topics. Additionally, I hope to engage with others who share my interests, learn from their perspectives, and foster ongoing dialogue. Thank you for joining me on this journey.